한국의 기본 용지규격은 100g, 중국의 기본 용지규격은 150g 민경욱이 밝힌 내용. 투표 용지가 150 그램이었던 이유는, 중국에서 인쇄되어 왔기 때문이라는 추론이 가능하다. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 박주현 변호사TV] 황교안 대통령 후보, 비전발표 등에서 부정선거 척결 의사 발표 등 영상! https://youtu.be/4I_z7Viud-8 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- [단독] 개성공단 문 닫은 지 5년인데… '평균 8200만원' 개성지원재단 연봉 매년 올렸다 뉴데일리, 개성지원재단 예산자료 분석… 최근 5년간 인건비로만 50% 지출 개성공단 2016년 폐쇄됐는데… 평균연봉 2018년 7340만원 → 2021년 8283만원 New Daily 2021-08-26 "존재이유 전도된 좀비 기관" --->현재 공무원의 9/10를 모두 잘라야 한국이 살아날 수 있다. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 지금 자살율 엄청 높은데 , 문재인이 보도 못하게 막는다고 하는데~~ㅠㅠ 박카스맨 http://www.ilbe.com/view/11362948969 지금 자살율 엄청 높은데 문재인이 보도 못하게 막는다고 하네 요 ~~ 반포쪽 한강변 아파트에서 살고있는 사람들 말이 요즘에 한강 다리밑으로 119 보트들이 엄청 자주 보인다고 함. 다리에서 자살하는 사람들이 엄청 많다고... 거실에서 영동대교가 바로 보이는데 불과 2년전만해도 일주일에 한두번이던 자살자 찾는 수상경찰 출동이 일년전부터 거의 매일 밤마다 찾아다닌다 이근처 사는 사람들은 다 안다고 영동대교가 자살 핫스팟인데 여기도 매일 몇명씩 떨어진다. 반포쪽 한강변 아파트에서 생활고에 시달리던 50대 아줌마가 15층 아파트 옥상에서 뛰어내려 죽었다. 하지만 지역신문에 한줄 기사도 안나옴. 아파트 주민들도 집값 떨어질까 쉬쉬 홍대에서도 코로나로 자살한 업주있던데 뉴스한줄 없더라? 엠뷸란스 오고 난리났던데 매장에서 목매달았다고. 현직 경찰도 직접 증언한 건데 지금 자살자 엄청 많다고, ​자살자 관련 유명한 점쟁이 말로는 생활고로 하루에도 수십명이 죽어서 ​죽은 사람이 부디 좋은곳으로 가게 해달라고 찾아온다네 ~ ​그래서 점집이 문전성시로 박터진다고 함. ​ IMF보다 더 심각하게 자영업 폐업률 높고 실업율이 높은데 ​왜 자살관련 보도가 안나오는줄 아냐? ​문재인이가 국민들 눈가릴라고 , 엠바고 쳐걸고 언론 보도 못하게 통제중 ​올해말이면 본격적으로 더 터져 나온다고 함. 지금 실제 자살자 수는 언급 안하고 코로나 사망자수로 계속 눈속임 염병질을 하는데, 경제문제로 무너진 가정, 자살자들이 계속 나오는데 이런 현실에 대해서는 입다물고 있음 . ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 미국증시 붕괴, 첫번째 신호 발생! ... 상위 0.1%에 진입하려면 [박훈탁TV] margin debt, 4.3% 폭락! ...Margin debt, 개인과 기관이 보유한 주식을 담보로 차입한 부채; 7월에 투자자들이 Margin debt를 대대적으로(4.3%) 줄였고; 1928년까지margin debt 하락과 S&P500지수 약세의 통계적으로 유의한 상관관계, 확인되었습니다. https://youtu.be/xjbTdedFSa8 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 칼 멩거의 학문적 유산 멩거는 경제학을 개인들의 선택을 연구하는 학문이라고 정의했다. 멩거 당시에 독일의 경제학은 역사학파가 장악하고 있었는데, 그들은 경제 이론에 대해 무지했고, 따라서 이론을 쓸모없는 추론이며 심지어 해롭다고 보았다. 하지만 멩거 이전에 이미 무명의 ‘고센’이라는 사람이 나타나 한계 효용의 원칙을 천명했다. 한계 효용 체감의 법칙이란 동일한 상품이 증가할 경우 각 단위의 가치가 조금씩 줄어든다는 뜻이다. 멩거는 효용 이론의 원칙을 밝혔고, 고전 경제학자들에 의해 발전되고, 막스에 의해 착취 이론에 이용된 생산 비용에 따른 가치 이론을 배격했다. 멩거에 따르면 개인이 경제 활동을 하는 이유는 자신의 상태를 개선하기 위해서이다. 인간의 지식의 증가, 거래 비용transaction costs의 감소, 저축의 이용 등에 의해 경제적 발전이 이루어진다. 번영은 경제가 얼마나 효율적으로 지식을 생산하고, 그 지식을 활용하는지에 달려 있다. 번영의 기준은 더 많은 상품을 소유하는 것에 있지 않고, 개인들의 주관적인 욕구가 얼마나 잘 충족되었는지에 달려 있다. 여기에는 레저와 비물질적 상품도 포함된다. 노동의 가치는 그것이 최종 생산품에 기여한 정도에 따라 평가된다. 멩거는 ‘가격’은 우연한 것이고, 중요한 것은 그 바탕에 깔려 있는 교환의 비율이라고 보았다. 그리고 교환 가치는 다시 개별 경제 활동가의 주관적 가치 평가에 의해 결정된다. 화폐는 교환을 촉진하는 도구이지 가치의 기준이 아니다. The Lasting Legacy of Carl Menger Antony P. Mueller Carl Menger (February 23, 1840–February 26, 1921) is the founder of the Austrian school of economics. He is generally recognized in economics for his contribution to the development of the concept of marginal utility and as a pioneer of the subjective value theory. For Austrian economics specifically, he laid the foundation with his insights on the use of knowledge and foresight, the importance of relative prices, the role of time, and the role of the spontaneous emergence of social institutions. Menger provides a consistent perspective of the economy and delivers a coherent exposition of the complexities of the interrelation among goods, value, exchange, and prices. Context Menger defines economics as the science of individual choice. His method of inquiry is based on deductive logic as an instrument to bring to light the hidden structure in the available empirical material. Joseph Salerno characterizes Menger’s methodology as “causal-realistic analysis.” In his essay on Carl Menger, Friedrich von Hayek points out that at the time of Menger’s writing, progress in economic theory had stagnated in England, while in Germany the second generation of historical economists dominated the field. These German scholars were ignorant of economic theory and regarded theory as useless speculation and possibly even harmful (p. vii). Nevertheless, the German tradition of economics had exerted an influence on Menger insofar as many continental economists (as in Italy and France) had remained conscious of the contradictions inherent to the determination of prices by production costs based on the labor theory of value. After all, there was Hermann Heinrich Gossen (1810–58), who had formulated the principle of marginal utility in his voluminous treaty, though it was largely unnoticed in academic circles when it was published. In his book of 1854 (translated into English as The Laws of Human Relations and the Rules of Human Action Derived Therefrom [1983]), Gossen formulated the economic law of diminishing marginal utilities in the valuation of the goods relevant to decision-making. Gossen also pioneered the law that equilibrium requires that the ratio of marginal utility to price to be equal for all goods under consideration, a theorem which has become standard in modern microeconomics in its mathematical formulation. Value Theory In his Principles of Economics (1871), Menger explains that people trade because both sides gain from exchange. People attribute different valuations to the same specific good. Therefore, in the voluntary exchange of goods, equivalents do not change hands, but both parties are better off than before. Value is subjective. Its degree changes with the individual’s conditions. Decreasing marginal utility means that more of the same good diminishes the value of each unit of the good. While Menger did not coin the term “marginal utility,” which was introduced later by Friedrich Wieser, the concept was developed by Menger as the magnitude of the importance which an economic agent attaches to the least important satisfaction which he still can secure by a single unit of the available quantity of the good (Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehr, pp. 87, 99). A unit of water to satisfy thirst has a higher ranking than the unit of water used to wash the hands. However, when there is enough water available to satisfy fully the need of washing hands, the unit of water to drink is not more valuable than the same unit of water to wash hands. Menger’s main contributions, as they are elaborated in his Principles of Economics, include the explanation of the subjective basis of economic value and that exchange ratios represent the foundation of relative prices. Menger elaborated the principles of utility theory and rejected the cost-of-production value theories as they had been developed by classical economists and used by Karl Marx in his exploitation theory. Well aware of these theories, Menger expounds his principle of marginal utility as the subjective valuation of goods depending on the number of the units of the good that are within the reach of an individual. Marginal utility decreases, and thus the satisfaction that the least valuable unit of the good renders for an individual determines the value of the goods satisfying the higher preferences on this person’s ranking schedule. Economic Action Beginning the investigation of the causal relationship between human needs and the availability of the means of their satisfaction led Menger to distinguish between goods of the first, second, and higher orders of goods. Goods of the first order serve for immediate consumption, while higher-order goods serve to produce the goods of the first order. With the concept of complementarity of goods, Menger alerts us to the problems of time and uncertainty. Betterment is the motivator of economic action. According to Menger, the purpose of the economic activity of an individual is to improve his conditions. Development in the sense of the improvement of personal economic circumstances takes place when the level of individuals' well-being rises. For this, the production of so-called goods of higher orders is the main means. First-order goods serve directly for consumption, while the goods of the higher orders serve for the production of the goods of the first order. These production goods have no direct utility, but one that is derived from the utility of the final goods. Economic progress takes place through the increase of human knowledge, the reduction of transaction costs, and the availability of savings. Thus, the extension of free markets is the key to development, along with entrepreneurial action aimed at finding the best ways to create and to cope with the edifice of higher-order goods—the capital structure. Prosperity depends on how well the economy generates knowledge and how effectively the application of the new insights can be accomplished. The criterion of progress is not the accumulation of ever more goods but the satisfaction of the subjective wants of the individuals in their full scope, which would also include leisure and nonmaterial goods. Exchange and Price In the context of goods of higher orders, Menger elaborates the principle of imputation, which says that production goods have a derived utility which rests in the utility that individuals ascribe to the final goods that are produced with the help of the higher-order goods (Grundsätze, pp. 138–42). The concept of “derived utility” applies also to labor. Labor has a value, but it results from the usefulness that it contributes to the final good. In this sense, labor is a good of higher order that is present in all stages of the production process. In each stage, the value of labor is derived from (or “imputed,” as the term was coined by Friedrich Wieser, to it by) its contribution to the end product. Menger also rejects the idea that prices are one of the most important aspects of the economy or even its most important feature. Prices are “accidental,” Menger explains, because what counts are the underlying exchange ratios. These exchange values, in turn, are determined by the subjective evaluations of the individual economic actors. Prices emerge as reflections of the subjective values of the individual participants in an exchange. Using the concept of a “commodity” as a good that is meant to be sold on the market, Menger highlights the different degrees of salability of goods. Given that a few specific goods have an exceptionally high degree of salability, which means that they are generally accepted in exchanges, Menger comes to the explanation of the emergence of money in an economy. Money is not the product of private or official agreement, let alone of a legislative act. Money is not an invention. Money came into use the more people realized that that their economic goals were promoted more swiftly in an exchange by accepting goods with the greatest marketability. Money is the outcome of human economic activities. Menger stresses that money is a tool to facilitate exchange and as such does not serve as a standard and store of value. Money is not a measuring rod. The basis of exchange is not the trade of equals but the inverse estimation of the trading partners concerning the value of the goods being exchanged. Prices have meaning only as relative prices, as the expression of exchange ratios. Legacy Many of Menger's insights are nowadays part of standard economics. Many more are preserved in the distinct school of Austrian economics. This applies particularly to the notions of foresight and the role of uncertainty, which are fundamental to economic activity in Menger’s perspective. Despite its wide scope, the Principles of Economics do not include the whole range of topics that Carl Menger wanted to cover. According to Hayek (p. xi), Menger had plans to deliver three more volumes. The second part of the project was to treat “interest, wages, rent, income, credit, and paper money,” the third part was to cover production and commerce, while a fourth part was to discuss and criticize the existing economic system and make proposals for its reform. Probably distracted by the “Methodenstreit,” Menger did not carry out his original plans and thus left much still to do for the succeeding generations of economists. Menger’s original work is full of profound insights. He is rightly cited as the unique founder of the Austrian school of economics. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------